France's National Assembly has voted to abolish low-emission zones, a key measure introduced during President Emmanuel Macron's first term to reduce city pollution.

So-called ZFEs (zones à faibles émissions) have been criticised for hitting those who cannot afford less-polluting vehicles the hardest.

A handful of MPs from Macron's party joined opposition parties from the right and far right in voting 98-51 to scrap the zones, which have gradually been extended across French cities since 2019.

The motion was put forward by Pierre Meurin of the far-right National Rally, and backed by some motoring organisations.

But it was a personal victory for writer Alexandre Jardin who set up a movement called Les #Gueux (Beggars), arguing that "ecology has turned into a sport for the rich".

"Everyone played their part in the vote. The MPs voted either for the end of this nightmare, or they abstained," he told Le Figaro newspaper.

"They were afraid of going back to their constituencies if they had voted against the abolition of the ZFEs."

The low-emission zones began with 15 of France's most polluted cities in 2019 and by the start of this year had been extended to every urban area with a population of more than 150,000, with a ban on cars registered before 1997.

Those produced after 1997 need a round "Crit'Air" sticker to drive in low-emission zones, and there are six categories that correspond to various types of vehicle.

The biggest restrictions have been applied in the most polluted cities, Paris and Lyon, as well as Montpellier and Grenoble.

They have turned into something of a lightning rod for Macron's opponents.

Marine Le Pen condemned the ZFEs as "no-rights zones" during her presidential campaign for National Rally in 2022, and her Communist counterpart warned of a "social bomb".

The head of the right-wing Republicans in the Assembly, Laurent Wauquiez, talked of "freeing the French from stifling, punitive ecology", and on the far left, Clémence Guetté said green policies should not be imposed "on the backs of the working classes".

The government tried to head off Wednesday night's revolt by watering down the restrictions, but also preserving the zones in Paris and Lyon. This amendment was defeated by a large margin.

Agnès Pannier-Runacher, the minister for green transition, told MPs that "air pollution is behind almost 40,000 premature deaths a year... and the low-emission zones have helped bring down [that number]".

The Greens and Socialists also voted to maintain the zones.

Green Senator Anne Souyris told BFMTV that "killing [the ZFEs] also means killing hundreds of thousands of people" and Socialist MP Gérard Leseul said the vote sent a negative signal as it did not address the reduction that had to be made to levels of air pollution.

The abolition is expected to go through the upper house, France's Senate, but it still needs to be approved in a broader bill in the lower house in June and will have to be approved by France's Constitutional Council, which is not guaranteed.